above the horizon of objects that are normally below
the horizon. This effect, known as looming, is a form of
mirage. Mirages of the type that distort the apparent
shape of the Sun, Moon, or other objects near the
horizon are common under inversion conditions.
One of the most interesting phenomena in the
Arctic is aurora borealis (northern lights). These lights
are by no means confined to the Arctic but are brightest
at the arctic locations. Their intensity varies from a faint
glow on certain nights to a glow, which illuminates the
surface of the Earth with light almost equal to that of the
light from a full moon. The reactions resulting in the
auroral glow have been observed to reach a maximum
at an altitude of approximately 300,000 feet.
The amount of light reflected from a snow-covered
surface is much greater than the amount reflected from
the darker surfaces of the middle latitudes. As a result,
useful illumination from equal sources is greater in the
Arctic than in lower latitudes. When the sun is shining,
sufficient light is often reflected from the snow surface
to nearly obliterate shadows. This causes a lack of
contrast, which, in turn, results in an inability to
distinguish outlines of terrain or objects even at short
distances. The landscape may merge into a featureless
grayish-white field. Dark mountains in the distance
may be easily recognized, but a crevasse immediately
ahead may be obscured by the lack of contrast. The
situation is even worse when the unbroken snow cover
is combined with a uniformly overcast sky and the light
from the sky is about equal to that reflected from the
snow cover. In this situation, all sense of depth and
orientation is lost in what appears to be a uniformly
white glow; the term for this optical phenomenon is
whiteout.
Pilots have reported that the light from a half-moon
over a snow-covered field is sufficient for landing
aircraft at night. It is possible to read a newspaper on
occasions by the illumination from a full moon in the
Arctic. Even the illumination from the stars creates
visibility far beyond what one would expect elsewhere.
It is only during periods of heavy cloud cover that the
night darkness begins to approach the degree of
darkness in lower latitudes. In lower latitudes, south of
65° north latitude, there are long periods of moonlight,
since the Moon may stay above the horizon for several
days at a time.
Antarctic Weather
Many of the same peculiarities prevalent over the
arctic regions are also present in the Antarctic. For
instance, the aurora borealis has its counterpart in the
Southern Hemisphere, called aurora australis. The
same restrictions to visibility exist over the Antarctic
regions as over the Arctic. Some other characteristics of
the Antarctic regions are as follows:
Precipitation occurs in all seasons, with the
maximum occurring in summer. The amount of
precipitation decreases poleward from the coast.
Temperatures
are
extremely
low.
The
lowest
temperature in the world, 127°F, was recorded at
Vostok,
Antarctica.
In
the
winter,
temperatures
decrease from the coast to the pole, but there is some
doubt that this is true in the summer. The annual
variation of temperature as indicated by Macmurdo
station shows the maximum in January and the
minimum in early September. A peculiar, and to date
unexplained,
feature
of
Antarctic
temperature
variations during the Antarctic night is the occurrence
of maximum temperatures on cloudless days in the
early hours after midnight. On cloudy days, however,
the day is warmer than the night.
UNITED STATES WEATHER
The weather in the United States, with minor
exceptions, is typical of all weather types within the
temperate regions of the North American, European,
and Asiatic continents. The general air circulation in
the United States, as in the entire Temperate Zone of the
Northern Hemisphere, is from west to east. All closed
surface weather systems (highs and lows) tend to move
with this west-to-east circulation. However, since this is
only the average circulation and weather systems move
with the general flow, the fronts associated with the
migratory lows also tend to move southward if they are
cold fronts and northward if they are warm fronts.
Surface low-pressure centers, with their associated
weather and frontal systems, are referred to as
cyclones. Knowledge of the mean circulation in the
temperate region makes it possible to observe and plot
average storm tracks and to forecast future movement
with a reasonable degree of accuracy.
Certain geographical and climatic conditions tend
to make specific areas in the United States favorable for
the development of low-pressure systems such as west
Texas, Cape Hatteras, central Idaho, and the northern
portions of the Gulf of Mexico. Once a low has formed,
it generally follows the same mean track as the last low
that formed in that area. The averages, or mean paths,
are referred to as storm tracks.
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